Nature, Published online: 17 September 2025; doi:10.1038/d41586-025-02959-z

High-resolution isotope data show that a modern-like, oxygen-rich atmosphere was not established until 410 million years ago, supporting a 2-billion-year transitional oxygenation of Earth’s surface. The record also captures a dynamic co-evolution of atmospheric and oceanic reduction–oxidation states, with repeated oxygenation pulses and feedback cycles.

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